Carbohydrate Content Classification Using Postprandial Heart Rate Responses from Non-Invasive Wearables.

The rising incidence of type 2 diabetes underscores the need for technological innovations aimed at enhancing diabetes management by aiding individuals in monitoring their dietary intake. This has resulted in the development of technologies capable of tracking the timing and content of an individual's meals. However, the ability to use non-invasive wearables to estimate or classify the carbohydrate content of the food an individual has just consumed remains a relatively unexplored area. This study investigates carbohydrate content classification using postprandial heart rate responses from non-invasive wearables. We designed and developed timeStampr, an iOS application for collecting timestamps essential for data labeling and establishing ground truth. We then conducted a pilot study in controlled, yet naturalistic settings. Data were collected from 23 participants using an Empatica E4 device worn on the upper arm, while each participant consumed either low-carbohydrate or carbohydrate-rich foods. Due to sensor irregularities with dark skin tones and non-compliance with the study's health criteria, we excluded data from three participants. Finally, we configured and trained a Light Gradient Boosting Machine (LGBM) model for carbohydrate content classification. Our classifiers demonstrated robust performance, with the carbohydrate content classification model consistently achieving at least 84% in accuracy, precision, recall, and AUCROC within a 60 s window. The results of this study demonstrate the potential of postprandial heart rate responses from non-invasive wearables in carbohydrate content classification.