Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals for the Management of Cardiovascular Disease Risk in Postmenopausal Women.

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a leading cause of death in women and risk of development is greatly increased following menopause. Menopause occurs over several years and is associated with hormonal changes, including a reduction in estradiol and an increase in follicle-stimulating hormone. This hormonal shift may result in an increased risk of developing abdominal adiposity, insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, vascular dysfunction, hypertension, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD), and metabolic syndrome (MetS). Furthermore, with the onset of menopause, there is an increase in oxidative stress that is associated with impaired vascular function, inflammation, and thrombosis, further increasing the risk of CVD development. Despite the harmful consequences of the menopause transition being well known, women in premenopausal, perimenopausal, and postmenopausal stages are unlikely to be enrolled in research studies. Therefore, investigations on the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular and metabolic disease in middle-aged women are still relatively limited. Whilst lifestyle interventions are associated with reduced CVD risk in this population sample, the evidence still remains inconclusive. Therefore, it is important to explore the effectiveness of early intervention and potential therapeutic approaches to maintain cellular redox balance, preserve endothelium, and reduce inflammation. Glycine, N-acetylcysteine, and L-theanine are amino acids with potential antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity and are identified as therapeutic interventions in the management of age-related and metabolic diseases. The benefits of the intake of these amino acids for improving factors associated with cardiovascular health are discussed in this review. Future studies using these amino acids are warranted to investigate their effect on maintaining the vascular health and cardiovascular outcomes of postmenopausal women.