Endocrine dysfunction post-traumatic brain injury: challenges and therapeutic approaches.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a widespread, serious public health concern with substantial lasting effects, such as impacting the endocrine system. Here, we review the complications and consequences of TBI on the hypothalamic-pituitary axis (HPA) and connected endocrine glands, which are essential for maintaining body balance. Endocrine dysfunctions caused by TBI, especially hypopituitarism, can result in hormonal imbalances that impact various physiological systems, such as growth, metabolism, reproduction, and stress responses. These dysfunctions can cause issues like adrenal insufficiency, hypothyroidism, and hypogonadism, greatly affecting the quality of life of survivors. In cases of moderate to severe TBI, up to 40% of individuals may suffer from post-TBI hypopituitarism, leading to extended morbidity. The introduced treatment methods concentrate on different therapeutic options, including hormone replacement therapies (HRTs) (corticosteroid, growth, thyroid, and sex hormones replacement therapies), emerging plant-based bioactive compounds, and other options to address particular deficiencies. Simultaneously, there is a growing interest in novel bioactive compounds derived from plants because of their neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties. In addition, certain populations, such as veterans and children, are more likely to develop endocrine dysfunction due to TBI. Comprehensive, cross-disciplinary care and individualized treatment plans are crucial to improve outcomes and long-term recovery for TBI patients. Further investigation is needed to enhance diagnostic instruments, explore novel therapies, and establish predictive biomarkers for early intervention in TBI-induced endocrine disorders.