Immune Cell Interplay in the Fight Against GBM.

Despite multimodal therapies, the treatment of glioblastoma remains challenging. In addition to the very complex mechanisms of cancer cells, including specialized phenotypes that enable them to proliferate, invade tissues, and evade immunosurveillance, they exhibit a pronounced resistance to chemo- and radiotherapy. More advanced tumors create a hypoxic environment that supports their proliferation and survival, while robust angiogenesis ensures a constant supply of nutrients. In GBM, these structures are very pronounced and contribute to the creation and maintenance of a highly immunosuppressive microenvironment that promotes tumor growth and immune escape. In addition, the high accumulation of immunosuppressive tumor-infiltrating leukocytes and other cells, the pronounced expression of immune checkpoint molecules, and the low mutational burden, i.e., the low number of neoantigens, are hallmarks of GBM and contribute to the challenge of therapeutic approaches. Here, we review a number of mechanisms that GBM exploits to support tumor growth and potential treatments. These include new chemotherapeutics, tumor treating fields, and small molecules, including compounds targeting angiogenesis or blockers of tyrosine kinases that inhibit tumor cell proliferation and survival. In addition, we focus on immunotherapies such as immune checkpoint blockade or cell therapies, in particular vaccination with dendritic cells and CAR-T cells, which can either kill GBM cells directly or bypass immunosuppression by modulating the tumor microenvironment or boosting the patient's own immune response.