Fine particulate matter exposure and sperm DNA fragmentation in US men: a spatial cross-sectional study.

study questionDoes exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) impact sperm DNA fragmentation? SUMMARY ANSWER: Higher PM2.5 exposure was associated with increased sperm DNA fragmentation, with greater effects observed in men of lower socioeconomic status (SES). WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY: Environmental air pollutants such as PM2.5 have been linked to adverse reproductive and perinatal outcomes. However, their impact on sperm chromatin integrity remains underexplored, particularly in the context of geographic and sociodemographic modifiers. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION: This was a cross-sectional study including 21 851 semen samples collected between 2005 and 2022 from men undergoing fertility evaluation across multiple US regions. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING,

methodsSemen samples were obtained from men older than 18 years, with testing performed in a single reference laboratory. Exposure to PM2.5 was estimated using validated satellite-derived models and aligned with the 70-80 day spermatogenic window prior to sample collection. Spatial linear mixed-effects models incorporating natural splines and geographic correlation structures were used to assess nonlinear associations between PM2.5 and sperm DNA fragmentation index (DFI), while adjusting for age, SES, population density, and racial composition. Interaction terms were used to evaluate effect modification. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE: Higher PM2.5 exposure was associated with increased DFI (estimate = 0.45; P = 0.0025), with a clear nonlinear dose-response pattern peaking at ∼11 µg/m³. A significant interaction was observed between PM2.5 and SES (estimate = 0.45; P = 0.0148), indicating that men from lower SES areas experienced stronger pollution-related DNA damage. Age remained a strong independent predictor: men ≥50 years showed markedly elevated DFI (estimate = 14.36; P < 0.0001). LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION: The sample was derived from men seeking fertility evaluation and may not represent the general population. ZIP-code level SES and exposure proxies may not reflect to the full extent an individual-level exposures, and residual confounding is possible. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE

findingsThese results underscore the reproductive health consequences of environmental air pollution and its intersection with social inequality. PM2.5 exposure may disproportionately affect sperm chromatin quality in disadvantaged populations; this finding supports targeted environmental and reproductive health interventions. Sperm DNA fragmentation may serve as a biomarker of environmental and social stress. STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S): This study was internally funded. V.X.D. and B.M. are employees of ReproSource, which provided laboratory testing, and Quest Diagnostics. No other conflicts of interest were reported. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: N/A.