ArticleInternational journal of surgery (London, England)2026
Water hardness and digestive diseases: a large-scale population-based prospective cohort study.
Article in International journal of surgery (London, England), 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 2 papers.
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Who cites it
2 citing papers in PubMed.
- Magnesium-Rich Mineral Water Improves Stool Consistency and Bowel Habits in Healthy Subjects: A Randomized Controlled Trial.Neurogastroenterology and motility · 2026Trial
- Associations Between Domestic Water Hardness, Genetic Risk and Severe MASLD: A Large-Scale Cohort Study.FASEB journal : official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology · 2026Article
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Authors and funding
7 authors.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
backgroundWater hardness, which refers to the level of dissolved calcium and magnesium salts, is of significant public health concern due to its potential impact on health. The association between water hardness and digestive diseases remains underexplored, with limited evidence from small-scale clinical studies. Given the rising prevalence of digestive disorders worldwide, large-scale cohort studies are needed to address this gap in the literature.
methodsThis study aims to explore the link between domestic water hardness and the risk of digestive disorders, leveraging data from 356 000 individuals within a large prospective cohort study. Water hardness was assessed through regional data on CaCO 3 concentrations, categorized into soft, moderately hard, hard, and very hard water based on United States Geological Survey standards. The primary outcome of interest was incident cases of a composite of digestive system diseases. Cox proportional hazard regression models were employed to evaluate the association between water hardness and the risk of 16 digestive diseases.
resultsOur study revealed a nonlinear association between water hardness and digestive health. Higher levels of water hardness (>180 mg/L CaCO 3 ) were inversely associated with the risk of several digestive conditions, including dyspepsia, constipation, and gallbladder disease, when compared to exposure to soft water. Conversely, exposure to moderately hard water (60-120 mg/L CaCO 3 ) was linked to increased risks of conditions such as peptic ulcer and gastroesophageal reflux disease.
conclusionsThis study provides important insights into the epidemiological associations between drinking water hardness and various digestive system diseases, suggesting that water quality may have potential impacts on public health.
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