Methylphenidate and Its Impact on Redox Balance and Behavior.

Methylphenidate (MPH) and its active enantiomer, dexmethylphenidate, are widely prescribed as first-line therapies for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), yet their increasing non-medical use highlights significant clinical and toxicological challenges. MPH blocks dopamine (DAT) and norepinephrine (NET) transporters, thereby elevating synaptic catecholamine levels. While this underpins therapeutic efficacy, prolonged or abusive exposure has been associated with mitochondrial impairment, disrupted bioenergetics, and excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, which collectively contribute to neuronal stress and long-term neurotoxicity. Growing evidence suggests that the gut-brain axis may critically influence MPH outcomes: diet-induced shifts in microbiome composition appear to regulate oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and drug metabolism, opening potential avenues for dietary or probiotic interventions. From a forensic perspective, the detection and monitoring of MPH misuse require advanced methodologies, including enantioselective LC-MS/MS and analysis of alternative matrices such as hair or oral fluids, which enable retrospective exposure assessment and improves abuse surveillance. Despite its established therapeutic profile, MPH remains a compound with a narrow balance between clinical benefit and toxicological risk. Future directions should prioritize longitudinal human studies, biomarker identification for abuse monitoring, and the development of mitochondria-targeted therapies to minimize adverse outcomes and enhance safety in long-term treatment.