Advances in Tumor Antigen Vaccines: A New Frontier in Cancer Immunotherapy.

With the increasing prominence of cancer immunotherapy, therapeutic tumor vaccines have emerged as a promising strategy to enhance antitumor immunity by increasing tumor immunogenicity and activating the patient's immune system to inhibit tumor growth. However, their clinical efficacy is often limited due to insufficient immune cell infiltration, low antigen immunogenicity, and tumor immune escape mechanisms. To address these challenges, various innovative approaches have been explored, including the optimization of tumor antigen selection, the development of advanced vaccine platforms, and the combination of vaccines with other treatment strategies such as radiotherapy, chemotherapy, immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), cytokine therapy, and adoptive T-cell transfer. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the mechanisms underlying tumor antigen vaccines, discusses recent advancements in vaccine design and combinatorial strategies, and assesses their potential to enhance therapeutic outcomes. We also highlight the ongoing challenges and future directions, underscoring the importance of interdisciplinary efforts to realize the full potential of tumor vaccines as a foundation of personalized cancer immunotherapy.