Advances in Titanium-Based Biomaterial for Human Bone Scaffolds: Narrative Review on Design, Fabrication, Surface Engineering, Implantation, and Biological Evaluation.

The growing demand for reliable orthopedic implants has driven extensive research into biomaterials and metal alloys for the development of bone scaffolds. This review summarizes current progress in improving scaffold performance by optimizing mechanical strength, biocompatibility, and bone integration. Key studies on material choice, modeling methods, manufacturing techniques, and surface treatments are discussed, with a special focus on titanium-based alloys due to their favorable mechanical and biological properties. Computational tools, particularly finite element modeling, are increasingly used alongside experimental findings to illustrate mechanical behavior and to guide design of structures that more closely resemble natural bone. Both additive and traditional manufacturing routes are considered, emphasizing how porosity, geometry, and fabrication parameters affect mechanical stability and tissue response. Surface modification approaches, both physical and chemical can enhance cell attachment and antimicrobial function. Overall, this paper shows how combining materials science, mechanical analysis, and biological testing helps develop bone scaffolds that offer durable mechanical support and clinical outcomes.