Bacterial Adaptation to Stress Induced by Glyoxal/Methylglyoxal and Advanced Glycation End Products.

Glyoxal (GO) and methylglyoxal (MGO) are highly toxic metabolic byproducts that induce carbonyl stress in bacteria and eukaryotes. Their accumulation in cells is linked to non-enzymatic glycosylation (glycation) of proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids, leading to the formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs). In humans, AGEs are associated with several health problems, such as diabetes, Alzheimer's disease, cancer, and aging. Recent studies indicate that, despite their short lifespan, bacteria are also affected by AGEs formation. In this review, we summarize the pathways and mechanisms that help bacteria cope with GO, MGO, and AGEs. We also discuss the impact of dietary AGEs on gut microbiota and the antibacterial activity of host-derived GO/MGO. Recent studies highlight three main areas for future research: the role of AGEs in dysbiosis, the regulation of protein activities by MGO/GO-dependent modifications, and the potential use of glyoxalase pathway inhibitors to combat pathogens. This last point is especially important due to the rising prevalence of multidrug-resistant strains and the failure of antibiotic therapies.