Multimodal Therapeutic Strategies for the Management of Sarcopenia and Frailty in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Narrative Review.

introductionSarcopenia and frailty are prevalent yet under-recognized contributors to disability, impaired quality of life, and adverse outcomes in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Shared mechanisms, including systemic inflammation, hormonal dysregulation, malnutrition, and physical inactivity, render these syndromes important targets for multimodal intervention. This review summarizes current evidence on exercise-based, nutritional, pharmacological, and adjunctive strategies for their management in COPD. MATERIALS AND

methodsThis narrative review is based on a structured literature search of PubMed, Scopus, and Embase to identify relevant studies published between January 2000 and May 2025. Eligible publications included randomized controlled trials, meta-analyses, systematic reviews, and observational studies involving adults with COPD and documented sarcopenia and/or frailty. Interventions were categorized by modality, and outcomes included muscle mass, strength, physical performance, quality of life, and hospitalizations. Data were synthesized thematically.

resultsResistance and combined exercise training consistently improved muscle strength and physical function, while endurance training enhanced cardiorespiratory capacity, particularly within pulmonary rehabilitation programs. Nutritional interventions, especially protein, leucine, or β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate supplementation, supported gains in lean mass and exercise tolerance. Pharmacological strategies, including anabolic hormones and myostatin inhibitors, showed early promise but require further evaluation regarding safety and long-term efficacy. Adjunctive therapies, such as neuromuscular electrical stimulation and oxygen supplementation, benefited patients unable to participate in conventional exercise training.

conclusionsAn integrated, multimodal approach combining structured exercise training and targeted nutritional support should be considered a cornerstone of COPD management to prevent and treat sarcopenia and frailty. Personalized rehabilitation strategies can substantially improve functional outcomes and quality of life, while future research should prioritize biomarker-guided personalization and long-term intervention studies.