ReviewClinical and experimental medicine2026
The immunomodulatory power of mesenchymal stem/stromal cell-derived extracellular vesicles in bone disorders: A comprehensive review.
Review in Clinical and experimental medicine, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
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Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
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0 citing papers in PubMed.
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Authors and funding
8 authors.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
Bones are not only mechanical structures but also highly active immunological organs. The bone marrow hosts hematopoietic, mesenchymal, and immune cells that continuously interact to coordinate bone remodeling, hematopoiesis, and systemic immune responses. Disruption of this osteoimmune network contributes to pathological conditions such as delayed fracture healing, osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, osteomyelitis, and other bone-destructive disorders. Mesenchymal stem/stromal cell-derived extracellular vesicles (MSC-EVs) have emerged as key paracrine mediators and promising therapeutic candidates within this system. In this review, we summarize current knowledge on the biogenesis, composition, and characterization of MSC-EVs, and then focus on how they modulate macrophages, neutrophils, T and B cells, natural killer (NK) cells, and other stromal populations in the bone microenvironment. We discuss preclinical evidence across major bone disorders, including fracture repair, osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, osteonecrosis, periodontitis, and osteomyelitis, emphasizing the immunomodulatory mechanisms involved (e.g., regulation of M1/M2 balance, Th17/Treg ratios, neutrophil extracellular traps, and NK cell activity). Finally, we outline translational progress, including early clinical studies, manufacturing and potency-assay challenges, and outstanding questions that must be addressed to integrate MSC-EVs into future therapeutic strategies for bone disease.
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Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the Socratic graph.