ArticleJournal of public health research2026
Early-life rural disadvantage and executive function in adulthood: The role of income and education.
Article in Journal of public health research, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
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Authors and funding
5 authors.
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Abstract
Background: This study examines the relationship between early-life rural residence and executive function (EF) in mid- and late-life and investigates the roles of educational attainment and childhood financial level. Design and Methods: Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses were conducted using data from the Cognitive Project in Waves 2 and 3 of the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) study. Structural equation modeling was employed to examine the relationships among these variables. Results: Educational attainment mediated the rural-EF relationship, and childhood financial status moderated the mediation model. The relationship between rurality and EF decline was fully mediated by education and differentially impacted by childhood financial status. Conclusions: Educational attainment is a key pathway between childhood rurality and adult EF. While rural individuals are at a disadvantage in educational attainment and score lower on measures of EF in adulthood, childhood financial level appears to be most impactful for individuals who grew up in urban environments.
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