Biosensors in dental, oral and craniofacial applications.

Oral and dental health is an important indicator and determinant of an individual's overall well-being. Untreated oral diseases can lead to severe systemic complications. Monitoring the oral environment and identifying biochemical and physiological patterns associated with disease states, such as periodontitis, gingivitis, caries, and oral cancers, is essential for early diagnosis and effective intervention. This review evaluates the current clinical needs in biochemical and physiological monitoring for oral healthcare and state-of-the-art biosensors capable of continuous analyte measurement. We surveyed the relevant biomarkers for common oral and dental diseases in patients compared to healthy controls. The design and performance of recent biosensing devices for these target analytes are reviewed and evaluated. For biochemical sensing, we found intraoral biosensors for high-abundance small molecules, such as ions and metabolites, have advanced significantly in recent years. However, robust sensing technologies for low-abundance analytes, including cytokines and other inflammatory biomarkers, remain limited and require further development in sensing mechanisms, bio-interfaces, and device integration. For physiological sensing, particularly the measurement of forces in tooth movement, recent developments in force sensor technologies have substantially improved measurement accuracy over traditional techniques. Despite these advancements, current platforms still face limitations in achieving long-term, real-time monitoring of mechanical conditions within the oral cavity due to challenges related to biocompatibility and device miniaturization. In conclusion, while notable progress has been made in biosensing for oral applications, continued research in device integration with clinical practices is essential to realize robust and clinically deployable biosensor systems that can advance precision oral healthcare.