Modern plant stress adaptation: integrating defense, nanotechnology and genetics.

This review critically analyses plant adaptive responses to biotic and abiotic stress, with a focus on recent advancements in molecular defense pathways, emerging nanotechnology approaches and CRISPR/Cas-based genome editing strategies. We critically reviewed structural, physiological, biochemical and genetic adaptations. Key regulatory processes include phytohormonal regulation, antioxidants, reactive oxygen species (ROS) signaling and stress-response gene networks are explored along with advances in nanotechnology-based strategies and CRISPR/Cas genome editing. A comparative evaluation of conventional breeding, molecular breeding, and genome-editing approaches highlights the advantages of CRISPR/Cas systems, particularly their precision, efficiency and ability to generate targeted phenotypic changes. In parallel, nanomaterials have shown promise in improved nutrient delivery, protecting cellular structures and enhancing genome-editing efficiency under stress conditions. By integrating nanotechnology and genome-editing approaches with traditional agricultural practices, it may be possible to enhance plant resilience, sustain crop productivity and reduce reliance on chemical inputs. Overall, this review provides a cohesive perspective on how these technologies can be combined to support future crop improvement efforts to tackle climate-induced agricultural challenges.