UAV-Deployable Open-Source Sensor Nodes for Spatial and Temporal In Situ Water Quality Monitoring and Mapping.

Matthew Burnett, Mohamed Abdelwahab, Joud N Satme, Austin R J Downey, Gabriel Barahona Smith, Antonio Fonce, Jasim Imran

Abstract read

PubMed Full text at PMC Publisher

In one paragraph

Article in Sensors (Basel, Switzerland), 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.

0numbers the graph read from it

0cells of the map it votes in

0citing papers in PubMed

–field-weighted citation impact

1 · What the graph read from it

What it found

Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.

The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.

2 · The registry

The trial behind it

Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.

Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.

3 · Its place in the literature

Who cites it

0 citing papers in PubMed.

No citing paper in PubMed yet.

4 · The record

Corrections and comments

PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.

5 · Who and what money

Authors and funding

7 authors.

Matthew BurnettDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA.ORCID 0009-0002-4434-3091

Mohamed AbdelwahabDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA.ORCID 0009-0002-5444-1365

Joud N SatmeDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-6769-8234

Austin R J DowneyDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-5524-2416

Gabriel Barahona SmithSouth Carolina Governor's School for Science and Mathematics, Hartsville, SC 29550, USA.

Antonio FonceDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA.

Jasim ImranDepartment of Civil Engineering, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-3479-3905

Funding

CMMI 2152896CPS 2237696Division of Civil, Mechanical & Manufacturing Innovation 2152896ITE 2344357NSF CPS 2237696NSF ITE 2344357Office of Naval Research 14048906ONR 14048906

6 · The paper itself

Abstract

Cost efficient, spatially resolved water quality monitoring is essential for managing pollution and protecting aquatic ecosystems. This study presents a low-cost (approximately USD 200), open-source, unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-deployable in situ sensor node for real-time assessment of surface-water conditions. The system integrates sensors for pH, turbidity, temperature, and total dissolved solids (TDSs), with onboard data logging and real-time clock (RTC) synchronization. Bench validation of the sensor package yielded mean absolute percentage errors of 1.34% for pH, 5.23% for TDS, and 0.81% for temperature, and the device operated continuously for 42 h. Field deployment demonstrated its ability to resolve spatial gradients, with observed ranges in the tested water body of pH 6.0-6.7, turbidity 11-18 NTU, TDS 44-51 ppm, and temperature 22.8-24.6 °C. Ordinary Kriging was used to interpolate measurements and generate continuous spatial maps. The open-source, UAV-deployable design provides an accessible platform for community-scale and research-oriented water quality mapping.

Indexed as

data-driven water quality mappingin situ sensorsopen-source hardwarespatial interpolation (Kriging)surface water quality assessmentUAV deploymentwater quality monitoring

Identifiers

PMID41755099

DOI10.3390/s26041158

PMCPMC12944472

What Socratic holds

Textmetadata

LicenceCC BY

Read underepoch 390

Registered trials

None linked

Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the Socratic graph.