ArticleCancer biology & medicine2026
Cancer-immunity cycle-based molecular subtypes in breast cancer predict the response to immune checkpoint inhibitors.
Article in Cancer biology & medicine, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
objectiveThe cancer-immunity cycle (CIC) outlines key steps of anti-tumor immunity from antigen release to T cell effector function. A comprehensive evaluation of the CIC in patients with breast cancer is lacking, which limits the accurate assessment of immune status and selection of patients suitable for immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) therapy.
methodsA signature that describes the six steps of the CIC in the primary tumor was constructed. This signature was used to calculate a CIC score in our previously published breast cancer cohort (
resultsBreast cancer patients were classified into three CIC clusters: cluster 1 [C1] (immune-cold); cluster 2 [C2] (antigen presentation-deficient); and cluster 3 [C3] (immune-hot). C3 showed abundant immune infiltration that correlated with a better ICI response. In addition to reduced immune infiltration, C1 patients exhibited macrophage phenotypic conversion. The tumor microenvironment of C2 was marked by elevated regulatory T cells and dysfunctional dendritic cells. Genomic analysis of C2 showed a high tumor mutational burden with frequent HLA loss of heterozygosity. C1 was enriched in lipid metabolism pathways and C3 in glycolysis features.
conclusionsThis study provided a novel framework for classifying tumors based on the CIC characteristics, revealing distinct biological and clinical profiles and suggesting broad clinical significance.
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