ArticleInternational journal of molecular sciences2026
Apple-Derived Vesicles Orchestrate Bone Regeneration:
Article in International journal of molecular sciences, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
What it found
Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.
The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.
Who cites it
0 citing papers in PubMed.
No citing paper in PubMed yet.
Corrections and comments
PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.
Authors and funding
13 authors.
Funding
Abstract
The immune microenvironment critically influences bone healing, particularly in the oral cavity where inflammation and microbial biofilms can compromise regeneration. Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) offer a biocompatible means to modulate immune responses, and apple-derived extracellular vesicles (ADEVs) have shown antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity, although their osteoregenerative potential remains unclear. Here, we investigate the indirect effects of ADEVs on bone regeneration by assessing how their immunomodulatory action on macrophages influences the osteogenic commitment of human dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs). ADEVs were isolated, characterized, and applied to THP-1-derived macrophages to evaluate polarization via morphology and immunofluorescence for M1 (iNOS) and M2 (ARG1) markers. Then, the extracellular vesicles (EVs) from untreated and ADEV-treated macrophages were isolated and applied to DPSCs. All EVs were efficiently internalized by both macrophages and DPSCs. Treated macrophages shifted toward an M2-like phenotype, and macrophage-derived EVs (MDEVs) promoted stem cell morphological features consistent with osteogenic activation. These findings suggest that ADEVs promote osteoregeneration indirectly by influencing macrophage polarization and modifying the osteoactive cargo of MDEVs, thereby supporting their potential in cell-free, immunomodulatory approaches for oral bone regeneration.
Indexed as
Identifiers
What Socratic holds
Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the Socratic graph.