Mitochondria-Derived Vesicles and Mitochondrial Extracellular Vesicles in Health and Cardiovascular Disease.

Mitochondria-derived vesicles (MDVs) and mitochondrial extracellular vesicles (mitoEVs) represent 2 related extensions of mitochondrial dynamics that link organelle maintenance to communication within and between cells. MDVs are small vesicles that bud directly from mitochondria, selectively packaging components of the outer membrane, inner membrane, or matrix. They serve as a localized quality control mechanism that removes oxidized or damaged material without engaging the entire mitophagic machinery. After budding, MDVs typically enter the endolysosomal pathway, where they can fuse with late endosomes or lysosomes for cargo degradation. A subset of MDVs also targets other organelles, particularly peroxisomes, contributing to organelle crosstalk, lipid metabolism, and redox balance. By contrast, mitoEVs released into the extracellular space contain intact functional mitochondria, mitochondrial contents (proteins, DNAs/RNAs, lipids, and so on), and nonmitochondrial cargo (ie, mRNAs, noncoding RNAs, and so on), which can be transferred to recipient cells and subsequently induce either pathogenic or beneficial outcomes. Therefore, mitoEVs have been implicated in metabolic cooperation, immune regulation, tissue remodeling, and aging. Accordingly, this review summarizes recent progress on the diverse mechanisms for the biogenesis of MDVs and mitoEVs, as well as available protocols for their isolation. The roles of MDVs and mitoEVs in mediating mitochondrial quality/quantity control and multiple layers of crosstalk between intracellular organelles and different cell types in health and disease are highlighted. Last, mitoEV-mediated pathogenic effects and therapeutic potential in cardiovascular disease are also discussed.