Preventing Parkinson's disease in the context of movement disorders: a narrative review of current evidence and future directions.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the fastest growing neurological disorder worldwide and, together with other movement disorders, belongs to a group of chronic neurological conditions associated with a substantial burden for affected individuals, caregivers, and healthcare systems. Despite significant advances in symptomatic treatment, disease-modifying therapies remain unavailable, shifting increasing attention toward prevention as a key therapeutic strategy. In this narrative we primarily focus on PD, as the epidemiologically most challenging condition and the one for which the most comprehensive evidence base for preventive strategies has been established. Preventive approaches relevant to other movement disorders are briefly discussed to highlight other promising targets requiring further investigations. In recent years major progress has been achieved in the identification of modifiable factors relevant for primary prevention of PD. Well-supported factors include physical activity, adherence to a Mediterranean diet, and caffeine or tea consumption as protective factors, as well as pesticide exposure as a relevant risk factor. Advances in early and prodromal diagnosis of PD have opened new perspectives for secondary prevention. Earlier identification of individuals at risk may enable timely interventions aimed at attenuating early disease progression. However, despite this progress, the systematic implementation of early therapeutic interventions in the prodromal phase remains limited. Evidence is sparse and largely indirect, mainly inferred from later disease onset associated with physical activity and dietary patterns. Similarly, although early diagnosis and treatment of cognitive impairment are clearly recommended by clinical guidelines, they remain insufficiently integrated into routine clinical care. Finally, tertiary prevention strategies are supported by a broad evidence base. Multidisciplinary rehabilitative care models have demonstrated clear benefits in preventing complications, maintaining daily functioning and quality of life. While such rehabilitative approaches are widely implemented, the strong evidence supporting moderate- to high-intensity physical exercise remains insufficiently translated into routine practice. Looking ahead, a key goal for the coming decades is the development of personalized prevention strategies, including beyond other insights into gene-environment interactions and the integration of multi-omics data to tailor interventions to individual risk profiles. Such approaches hold promise to maximize preventive efficacy and reduce the overall burden of PD and related movement disorders.