Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)-Based Metrology for Advanced Etching in Three-Dimensional Integrated Circuits.

Fueled by the push for "More than Moore", three-dimensional integrated circuits (3D ICs) have become a backbone of next-generation electronics. Their complex architectures place unprecedented demands on etching technologies, which must now deliver atomic precision, stringent high-aspect-ratio (HAR) control, and virtually damage-free profiles. Meeting these challenges requires metrology capable of true 3D, quantitative analysis at the nanoscale. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) has proven essential in this regard, offering non-destructive, sub-nanometer characterization that other techniques cannot provide. This review systematically examines AFM's pivotal role in advancing key etching processes for 3D ICs, including deep reactive ion etching of through-silicon vias (TSVs), atomic layer etching (ALE), and cryogenic plasma etching. We detail AFM's unique contributions to quantifying sidewall roughness, verifying etch-per-cycle rates, and assessing surface damage. We also discuss how recent innovations, such as tilting-AFM, HAR probes, and automated inline systems, are overcoming traditional barriers in throughput and access to sidewalls and deep trenches. Looking forward, the integration of AFM with optical metrology, machine learning, and multi-scale modeling opens a path toward truly autonomous process control and optimization. As such, AFM stands as an indispensable tool for developing and refining the etching processes that underpin next-generation 3D semiconductor manufacturing.