Evaluating Convolutional and Transformer Architectures for Photovoltaic Defect Classification via Electroluminescence Imagery.

Electroluminescence (EL) imaging is widely used for photovoltaic (PV) defect inspection, yet fair comparison of deep learning backbones remains difficult because datasets, labels, and protocols vary across studies. This work presents a controlled image-level benchmark of six architectures (ConvNeXt-T, ViT-B/16, DeiT-B/16, Swin-T, DenseNet121, and MobileNetV3-Large) across five hierarchical tasks for monocrystalline and polycrystalline cells with binary and multi-class labels. A balanced proprietary dataset of 20,000 single-cell EL images was evaluated with identical preprocessing, augmentation, training, and stratified five-fold cross-validation, yielding 150 runs. ConvNeXt-T achieved the highest mean macro-F1 (93.12%) while using about one-third of the parameters of base ViT/DeiT models. On the four-class polycrystalline task, it reached 84.94 ± 0.45% macro-F1, compared with 70.08 ± 1.19% for DenseNet121 and 59.43 ± 1.71% for MobileNetV3-Large. Error analysis revealed conservative missed-defect behavior in lightweight CNNs, especially for surface-level degradation and crack categories. The results provide image-level cross-validation evidence for controlled benchmarking and motivate future module-level grouped validation.