Plant-derived extracellular vesicles as bioactive nanoplatforms: Biogenesis, therapeutic evidence, and translational challenges.

Background: Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) are nanoscale membrane vesicles isolated from edible or medicinal plants. They have attracted interest because they combine endogenous biological activity with the practical advantages of scalable natural nanocarriers. Objective: This mini-review examines PDEVs from a pharmaceutical development perspective rather than as a broad catalogue of biological observations. We focus on how vesicle source, isolation workflow, cargo composition, and route of administration affect therapeutic interpretation and translational feasibility. Content: We summarize PDEV biogenesis, isolation, characterization, and interaction with mammalian cells, and compare PDEVs with mammalian exosomes and synthetic liposomes. Representative preclinical studies in bone repair, neurological injury, inflammatory and gastrointestinal disease, cancer, and renal stone disease are critically evaluated, with attention to dose heterogeneity, model limitations, and mechanistic strength. We also discuss PDEVs as engineered carriers for exogenous therapeutics and revisit the debate around dietary plant miRNA uptake and cross-kingdom regulation. Conclusion: PDEVs offer several practical advantages, including oral compatibility, scalable sourcing, and potential dual use as intrinsic therapeutics and delivery systems. The field remains limited by inconsistent terminology, non-standardized purification, incomplete pharmacokinetic profiling, and scarce clinical data. Future translation will require rigorous quality control, reproducible potency assays, comprehensive biodistribution studies, and clear regulatory positioning.