Tutorial: strategies for targeting organelles using nanoparticles.

Dysfunctions in specific subcellular organelles are fundamentally implicated in the pathogenesis of a wide range of critical diseases. Targeting these organelles has thus emerged as a promising strategy for achieving precise diagnostics and effective therapies. Nanotechnology serves as a powerful platform in this endeavor, enabling the rational design of nanoparticles with tailored physicochemical properties to control their intracellular trafficking and localization. This Tutorial systematically examines design strategies for nanoparticles that target key organelles, including mitochondria, lysosomes, the nucleus, the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus. Here we summarize organelle-specific targeting design strategies, elucidate the underlying fundamental principles and describe experimental methodologies for validating subcellular localization. Furthermore, we discuss emerging frontiers in the field. We aim to provide a systematic and actionable guide for researchers in materials science, chemistry, biology and medicine, supporting the development of next-generation organelle-targeted nanomedicines for both fundamental research and translational applications.