ReviewTherapeutics and clinical risk management2026
Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors in Breast Cancer: Mechanisms, Biomarkers, and Future Therapeutic Strategies.
Review in Therapeutics and clinical risk management, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
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Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
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Authors and funding
8 authors.
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Abstract
The landscape of breast cancer treatment has been fundamentally transformed by the emergence of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), representing a paradigm shift from traditional cytotoxic approaches to precision immunotherapy. This comprehensive review examines the current state and future directions of ICIs in breast cancer, with particular emphasis on triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) where these therapies have shown the most promise. We explore the mechanistic foundations of checkpoint inhibition targeting CTLA-4, PD-1, and PD-L1 pathways, examine resistance mechanisms and predictive biomarkers, and discuss emerging targets including LAG-3, TIM-3, and TIGIT. The integration of ICIs with conventional therapies has yielded encouraging clinical outcomes, leading to the first FDA approvals for immunotherapy in breast cancer. However, significant challenges remain in identifying optimal patient populations, overcoming resistance mechanisms, and developing robust predictive biomarkers. This review synthesizes current evidence from recent clinical trials and provides insights into future therapeutic strategies that promise to enhance the efficacy of immune checkpoint blockade in breast cancer treatment.
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