ReviewInternational journal of oncology2026
Immunoediting and precision biomarkers in prostate cancer: The emerging role of liquid biopsy, immune contexture and HLA genotype (Review).
Review in International journal of oncology, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
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Authors and funding
6 authors.
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Abstract
Prostate cancer (PCa) remains a leading cause of cancer‑related mortality in men despite advances in screening and localized treatment. The clinical heterogeneity of PCa, ranging from indolent disease to aggressive, lethal phenotypes, underscores the urgent need for reliable biomarkers that improve diagnosis, prognostication and therapeutic decision‑making. While prostate‑specific antigen testing has reduced mortality, its limited specificity has resulted in overdiagnosis and overtreatment. The present review provides a comprehensive overview of contemporary and emerging biomarkers that support a precision‑medicine approach to PCa management. The present review summarizes established and novel diagnostic, prognostic and predictive biomarkers, including serum‑ and urine‑based assays, genomic and transcriptomic signatures and multiparametric imaging. Particular emphasis is placed on liquid biopsy technologies (circulating tumor cells, circulating tumor DNA and extracellular vesicles), which offer minimally invasive, real‑time insights into tumor burden, molecular evolution and treatment resistance, although their clinical implementation remains context‑dependent and is currently most established in advanced disease settings rather than routine early‑stage management. The present review discusses the strengths and limitations of these platforms, highlighting disease‑stage dependency, technical variability and sensitivity constraints. Beyond tumor‑intrinsic markers, tissue‑based immune biomarkers that capture the tumor immune microenvironment, including immune cell density, spatial organization, checkpoint expression and immune‑related gene signatures, are explored. Evidence indicates that 'immune‑hot' tumors characterized by CD8
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