Effect of gut bacterial extracellular vesicles on angiogenic potential and vascular integrity: positive and negative aspects.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are intercellular mediators in prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems that have the potential to regulate various physiological and pathological processes in recipient cells. Among them, bacterial extracellular vesicles (BEVs), including Gram-negative outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) and Gram-positive membrane vesicles (MVs) produced by the gut microbiota, have special roles in humans and animals. Due to their nanoscale dimensions and distinct molecular payloads, BEVs can cross biological barriers, including the vascular endothelium, to reach distant target tissues and affect various pathophysiological processes. Dysbiosis and compromised epithelial barriers facilitate the systemic dissemination of gut microbiota-derived BEVs, increasing the risk of diseases such as atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. Importantly, while this review emphasizes symbiotic intestinal BEVs, evidence from oral and pathogenic bacteria has also been integrated as indirect mechanistic sources to shed more light on BEV-induced endothelial dysfunction and altered angiogenesis. Here, we aimed to highlight the impact of BEVs on the vascular compartment, focusing on endothelial cells (ECs) in terms of molecular and cellular events. Understanding the underlying mechanisms will enable us to develop sophisticated engineered BEVs to control and inhibit certain pathological conditions.