Inflammation, infection, and immune dysregulation in chronic kidney disease: translational and epidemiological perspectives.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) represents a growing global health challenge associated with substantial morbidity, mortality, and healthcare burden. Although metabolic and haemodynamic factors, particularly diabetes mellitus and hypertension, remain major contributors, increasing evidence demonstrates that persistent inflammation and immune dysregulation are central mechanisms influencing CKD initiation, progression, and complications. The renal immune microenvironment consists of complex interactions among resident kidney cells, infiltrating immune cells, inflammatory mediators, and molecular signalling networks that regulate tissue repair, fibrosis, and disease outcomes. Persistent activation of innate and adaptive immune responses promotes cytokine release, oxidative stress, endothelial dysfunction, and maladaptive tissue remodelling, contributing to progressive loss of kidney function. Infectious diseases and altered host-microbiome interactions may further amplify systemic inflammation and immune imbalance, particularly in vulnerable populations. Advances in immunology and molecular medicine have identified inflammatory biomarkers and immune-related pathways with potential applications in early detection, risk stratification, and targeted interventions. This Mini Review synthesizes current evidence linking inflammation, infection, and immune dysregulation with CKD progression, highlighting translational opportunities and epidemiological perspectives. Integrating mechanistic insights with population-level evidence may accelerate precision approaches for improving CKD prevention, monitoring, and therapeutic outcomes.