ArticlePloS one2026
Associations between dietary composition, water intake, urine pH, and cardiometabolic indicators among young Saudi women.
Article in PloS one, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
backgroundCardiometabolic disorders continue to rise globally, yet limited evidence exists regarding the associations between dietary composition, hydration status, urine pH, and cardiometabolic risk indicators in young Saudi women.
aimTo investigate the associations between dietary composition, water intake, urine pH, and cardiometabolic indicators among young Saudi women.
methodsA cross-sectional analytical study was conducted among 135 Saudi women aged 19-30 years in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Data were collected remotely using a structured, self-administered electronic questionnaire under home-based conditions. Anthropometric measurements, blood pressure, water intake, dietary intake, and urine pH were assessed following standardized instructions provided to participants. Dietary intake was evaluated using repeated 24-hour dietary recalls and analyzed using Food Processor software (ESHA Research, Version 7). Statistical analyses included descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation analysis, and multiple linear regression models to examine associations between dietary intake, hydration status, and cardiometabolic risk indicators.
resultsCentral adiposity was present in 26.6-35.5% depending on the index. Elevated diastolic blood pressure was observed in 72.6% of participants. Only 8.9% consumed ≥8 cups of water/day. Higher energy, sodium, and omega-6 intake were positively associated with systolic blood pressure, while carbohydrate and phosphorus intake showed inverse associations. Energy intake was positively associated with diastolic blood pressure, and urine pH showed weak positive correlations with soluble fiber and thiamin.
conclusionDietary composition and hydration status were significantly associated with blood pressure and urine pH among young Saudi women. Higher energy and sodium intake were associated with higher blood pressure levels, while carbohydrate intake showed inverse associations with blood pressure outcomes. In addition, dietary fiber, selected micronutrients, and unsaturated fatty acids demonstrated variable associations with cardiometabolic risk indicators. Regarding urine pH, energy intake was inversely associated, whereas carbohydrate, omega-6, and magnesium intake showed significant associations. These findings highlight important diet-health relationships; however, they should be interpreted as exploratory associations rather than causal effects due to the cross-sectional design of the study.
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