Challenges and sustainable solutions in multispecies extensive livestock production systems across India's agroclimatic zones.

Extensive livestock production systems support over 70 million rural households across India's 15 agroclimatic zones, yet face interconnected challenges of feed scarcity (national deficits of approximately 11-32% for green fodder, 23% for dry fodder, and 29-40% for concentrates, with localized winter shortages reaching ~ 68% in some humid zones), water stress (intensifying under climate change), inadequate veterinary coverage, and welfare compromises. This review adopts a systems analysis approach to examine feed-water-health-welfare-climate interactions across multiple species (cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, camel) in ecologically diverse production environments.

methodsWe synthesized evidence from approximately 350 sources and field innovations to develop an integrated framework mapping resource flows, constraint interactions, and adaptive capacity across zones. We synthesized reported trade-offs between productivity enhancement, emissions mitigation, and welfare improvement based on evidence reported across studies. KEY SYSTEMS

findingsLiterature consistently reports that feed and water constraints interact non-additively in zones with > 30% feed deficit with several studies reporting approximately 1.5-2-fold amplification of drought impacts on productivity. These values represent reported ranges synthesized conceptually rather than a pooled statistical estimate. Indigenous innovations (Johads, chauka systems, ethno-veterinary practices) yield 30-40% gains in resource efficiency when integrated with modern inputs in arid/semi-arid cattle-goat systems (Pankaj et al. 2023; Kanwal et al. 2020). Species-zone matching shows thermal-tolerant breeds maintain 15-20% higher productivity (Kankrej cattle, Barbari goats) than crossbreeds under heat stress (> 35 °C) (Sarang et al. 2024; Sejian et al. 2019; Das 2017). Dietary additives reduce enteric methane by 17-98%, ranging from tannin-rich forages (~ 17-20%) to Asparagopsis seaweed (up to ~ 98% under in vitro/in vivo conditions) in small ruminants and cattle (Verma and Kumar Verma 2025; Mwangi et al. 2023; Amad and Zentek 2023). SYSTEMS INTEGRATION FRAMEWORK: We propose a conceptual decision-support matrix integrating breed selection, feed management, water harvesting, and veterinary delivery across 15 zones, identifying optimal intervention packages. Zone-specific vulnerability indices highlight critical thresholds based on synthesized evidence from the literature. Arid zones (13-14) are reported to experience compounding welfare and productivity decline when summer temperatures exceed approximately 42 °C for extended periods (in the order of 90 days), consistent with heat-stress thresholds documented in the literature (Sejian et al. 2019; Mishra et al. 2024). IMPLICATIONS: Sustainable transformation requires synergistic implementation of traditional knowledge and technological innovation, gender-inclusive extension (women provide 50% plus labor) and policy frameworks addressing cross-scale interactions. Research gaps include empirical validation of welfare indicators, emission baselines for indigenous breeds, and community-based institutional models. Our integrated framework enables evidence-based resource allocation and supports India's climate commitments while enhancing rural livelihoods.