ArticleFrontiers in immunology2026
Grand challenges in sex differences in immunology: problems the field must solve before biological sex can guide clinical practice.
Article in Frontiers in immunology, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
What it found
Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.
The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.
Who cites it
0 citing papers in PubMed.
No citing paper in PubMed yet.
Corrections and comments
PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.
Authors and funding
2 authors.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
Male and female immune systems differ in composition and function across the entire life course, shaping susceptibility to infection, autoimmunity, allergy, neurodegeneration, cancer, and responses to vaccines and immunotherapies. Despite decades of observational evidence, mechanistic clarity on why these differences arise - and how to exploit them therapeutically - remains limited. This paper outlines six grand challenges that, if addressed, would move sex-differential immunology from description toward clinical application: (1) rigorous identification of the sex differences in immune cell function across the lifespan during health and disease; (2) defining the functional roles of X- and Y-linked immune genes and the impact of X chromosome inactivation escape; (3) mapping the role of sex steroids including their contribution to sex-specific epigenetic regulation; (4) clarifying the immunological impact of the bidirectional sex-microbiota-immunity axis; (5) ensuring that experimental models and study designs make sex a variable rather than a confounder; and (6) translating mechanistic insights into sex-tailored disease prevention and treatment. Progress on these fronts could improve outcomes for both sexes across infectious disease, autoimmunity, allergy, neurodegeneration, cancer, and vaccinology.
Indexed as
Identifiers
What Socratic holds
Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the Socratic graph.