ArticleInfection2026
Contact behavior and serological evidence of influenza reinfection across three post-COVID-19 pandemic seasons in a nationwide German cohort.
Article in Infection, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
What it found
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The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
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Authors and funding
12 authors.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
backgroundInfluenza remains a global public health burden. While interpersonal contacts drive transmission, their association with individual-level reinfection risk is not well quantified, particularly in the post-COVID-19 period. We assessed the relationship between contact frequency and serological evidence of influenza reinfection across three consecutive seasons.
methodsIn this multicentre, population-based panel study conducted between 2020 and 2024, binding antibody titers against hemagglutinin antigens of three influenza subtypes (A(H1N1), A(H3N2), and B) were measured by a bead-based multiplex immunoassay. Serological evidence of influenza reinfection was defined by fold-changes relative to the preceding season; with adjustments to minimize misclassification due to influenza vaccination. Logistic regression models were designed to estimate crude odds ratios (ORs) and DAG-informed adjusted odds ratios (aORs) for reinfection associated with total, household, and non-household contacts.
resultsSerological reinfection was detected in 14% (2021/22), 17% (2022/23), and 12% (2023/24) of participants. Among self-reported unvaccinated participants, reinfection was detected in 6%, 13% and 17% across the respective seasons. Non-household contacts were associated with increased odds of reinfection in one season (2022/23: aOR 1.008, 95% CI 1.002-1.014), while household contacts were associated with higher odds of reinfection in two seasons (2022/23: aOR 1.285, 95% CI 0.905-1.823; 2023/24: aOR 1.267, 95% CI 0.685-2.343).
conclusionsSerological evidence of reinfection among unvaccinated participants in comparison with all participants aligned more closely with surveillance data in 2021/22. Residual misclassification of vaccination or preceding infections may partly explain the absence of an association in 2021/22. Associations between contact behavior and reinfection were season-specific, with household contacts showing the strongest and most consistent effects.
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