ArticleFrontiers in endocrinology2026
Simultaneous semen and urine biomonitoring of neonicotinoids and associations with semen quality in men.
Article in Frontiers in endocrinology, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
Background: Neonicotinoid insecticides (NEOs) are among the most widely used insecticides worldwide, yet their presence in seminal plasma and potential implications for male reproductive health remain poorly characterized. Urine-the conventional biomonitoring matrix-may not fully reflect concentrations in reproductive-relevant tissues, highlighting the need for direct seminal biomonitoring. Methods: In a cross-sectional study of 179 men attending a reproductive technology clinic in Jinan, China, 18 NEO parent compounds and metabolites (m-NEOs) were simultaneously quantified in urine (n = 179) and semen (n = 173) samples using UPLC-MS/MS. Among the 18 target analytes, 14 were quantified in at least one biological matrix. Associations between NEO exposure and semen quality parameters were assessed using multivariable linear regression, restricted cubic spline models, Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR), and quantile-based g-computation (QGC). Results: Among the successfully quantified analytes, 11 NEOs and m-NEOs were detected in urine (>75% detection frequency) versus four in semen; urinary and seminal concentrations were weakly correlated (r = -0.02 to 0.38), suggesting matrix-specific exposure profiles. Urinary 5-hydroxy-imidacloprid (5-OH-IMI) was associated with sperm concentration, total count and normal morphology. Seminal desnitro-imidacloprid (DN-IMI) and imidacloprid-urea (IMI-urea) were negatively associated with sperm concentration, total sperm count, and motility. Mixture analyses revealed a 27% reduction in sperm concentration per one-quartile increase in seminal NEO exposure (QGC: -27%, 95% CI: -43% to -7%), with DN-IMI identified as the major contributor to the observed mixture association (BKMR posterior inclusion probability (PIP) = 0.913). Age-stratified analyses suggested age-related differences in associations between NEO exposure and semen quality. Conclusions: Seminal NEO concentrations, which were not adequately reflected by urinary biomarkers, were associated with lower sperm concentration, highlighting semen as a potentially informative matrix for reproductive risk assessment. These findings underscore that assessments relying solely on urinary biomarkers may not fully capture reproductive-relevant NEO exposure profiles. Longitudinal studies incorporating hormone profiling and functional sperm assessments are needed to further clarify causal pathways and inform regulatory thresholds.
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